Euphemisms: examples. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech

The word "euphemism" came from a complex Greek term, consisting of two words: "good" and "speak". It is a stylistically neutral expression or concept, used by us instead of some linguistic unit that is synonymous, which seems to be a rough, tactless or indecent speaker. Euphemisms, examples of which we cite in this article, often mask the essence of the phenomenon, veil it, for example: use instead of "die" - "die," instead of "lying" - "telling lies," replacing the phrase "price increases" by "liberalizing prices" . We can say about the atomic bomb, using the word "product".

Historical variability of euphemisms

Euphemisms, in contrast to common vocabulary, are very sensitive to the estimates of certain phenomena by society as "indecent" or "decent." This is due to the historical variability of this layer of vocabulary: what is considered a single generation a euphemistic name, in the following can be regarded as unacceptable and undoubted rudeness, which in turn requires a euphemistic substitution. For example, the history of the French words garce and fille. In ancient times, the former was just a feminine match for gars, meaning "boy, boy," then a euphemism for the word "whore", but soon became aware of how rude and replaced in the given function by the word fille (one of the meanings), which, in turn , In French today has ceased to be considered a substitute and is used in abusive vocabulary. Similar euphemisms in speech are common in many languages.

A similar picture is observed in the history of designations of this concept among the Slavs. So, the Russian word "Kurva" (compare also the Belarusian, Ukrainian and Bulgarian "Kurva", Czech kurva, Polish kurwa) meant originally "chicken", and then it was used as a euphemism of rude words in the meaning of a slutty woman (compare the French cocotte - Chicken ", then" slutty woman "). There are also similar English euphemisms.

Correlation with other speech techniques

As a method of perifrastic, indirect and at the same time mitigating the designation of a property, object or action, they also correspond with other speech techniques, in particular with a litote, which is understood as the reception of expressiveness, based on a double negation ("not without intent," " ) Or the shifting of the negation to the modus part of the affirmative part of the utterance ("I do not think that you are right", - cf .: "I think that you are wrong"), and with another means - meiosis - the reception of expressiveness, the essence of which is the intentional Understatement .. Ensivnosti various properties of the subject of speech, processes, actions, etc. ( "It is difficult to call smart" - a silly woman, "He shoots pretty well" - the good direction).

Connection with the nomination

The process of euphemization has a close relationship with another - the nomination. This is one of the three fundamental phenomena that shape human speech activity (the other two are assessment and predication). For cultural, ethical, psychological or other reasons, objects called with difficulty or not called at all require a euphemistic designation. Renewal of names occurs because it is required to veil or soften again and again the essence of what is considered indecent, inconvenient in a cultural society. There are, in particular, political euphemisms, an example of which we have already cited (replacing the phrase " price increases" by "liberalizing prices"). You can find a number of others.

Specificity of euphemisms

Euphemisms, examples of which are very extensive, have their own specifics. It manifests itself both in their linguistic essence and in what topics are most often exposed to this process, the spheres of using the words they have received, in the types of means and methods by which they are created in the language, in different assessments given by the society to one or another euphemism .

The essence of euphemism

Essential for the process of euphemization are the following:

1. The evaluation that the speaker makes to the subject of speech as such, a direct indication of which can be regarded (as a specific addressee or in some social environment) as indecency, harshness, rudeness, etc.
2. The selection of such notation, which veils, masks the essence of this phenomenon, and not only softens the way it is expressed. This is especially clear on the example of medical euphemisms, semantically vague, for example, "neoplasm" instead of the word "swelling," or borrowings from other languages (and therefore not fully understood by most) - a term such as "pediculosis" instead of Russian "lice", or others Euphemisms in the Russian language, examples of which can be continued.
3. The use depends on the conditions of speech and context: the more social control of some speech situation and the self-control of one's own speech are more rigid, the more likely is the appearance of euphemisms. Conversely, in situations where speech is poorly controlled, its high automatism is observed (communication with friends, in the family, etc.). Euphemisms, examples of which we have given, can be replaced by "direct" means of designation.

Goals of euphemism for inclusion in speech

1. The main goal that the speaker pursues when using such words is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts, to create a situation in which the interlocutor will not feel discomfort. In pursuing this euphemism goal in a more "soft" form, in comparison with other ways of nomination, is called action, object, property. So, for example, as a substitute for the word "deaf" the "hard of hearing" is used, instead of "blind" - "blind", instead of "lying" or "lying" - "untruth", the word "drunk" is replaced by "drunk", "fat" - "complete", etc. A euphemism, the definition of which usually does not present great difficulties, since we do it intuitively, in these cases allows us to communicate without experiencing any discomfort.
2. Camouflage, the veiling of the essence of the matter is another important goal with which similar substitutions are used and created. This is especially characteristic of a totalitarian society, such as Russia, for example, until the late 1980s. Examples of veiling euphemistic expressions that conceal the essence of actions and concepts that are unpleasant for the interlocutor: instead of the word "prison" - "institution", "snitch" - "well-wisher", as well as numerous entities that have the morpheme "special" in the first part of the word (special settlers, Special contingent, special police department, special department, special distributor, special protection and others), "regulation or ordering of prices" (meaning in fact their increase), "unpopular measures" (tax increase, for example) and other similar euphemisms. Examples of words can be cited and others. There are a lot of such pairs in Russian.
3. This is not all cases when a euphemism can be used. The definition of the last, third, case is not so obvious, however, one can also guess about it. Euphemisms can be used to conceal from others what the speaker is willing to tell only a specific addressee. Of course, such "cipher" is relative, it soon becomes imaginary, especially if the messages are published, and not contained in the correspondence of two persons, and thus become available to any listener or reader. For example, this is typical for newspaper ads, the topic of which is the exchange of the area of an apartment ("I change a two-room apartment for a three-room apartment by agreement"), hiring a job ("Girls are required without complexes for high-paying jobs"), etc. The meaning of euphemisms is thus not Should be underestimated.

Spheres and themes of euphemism

The evaluation of the words used by the speaker in terms of courtesy / rudeness, decency / impropriety is focused on certain areas and subjects of human activities (as well as relationships between people). They are traditionally considered the following:

1. Certain physiological states and processes ("free your nose" instead of the word "bleed", "malaise" (about female menstruation), "wait for a child" instead of "get pregnant," etc.).
2. The parts of the body connected with the "bodily lower" are such that the euphemistic, indirect designation of them is perceived in everyday speech by the majority of speakers as not quite decent (for example, slang and prostitution of the male penis: "stick", "apparatus", "instrument" " and etc.).
3. Relations between the sexes: "to be in an intimate relationship," as well as the vernacular meaning of "meeting", that is, to have "sexual relations", etc.
4. Death and disease: instead of "sick" - "feel bad", instead of "syphilis" - "French cold," the word "deceased" instead of "deceased", etc.

That is, the euphemism is synonymous with the word, but with a certain meaning of meaning. The themes and spheres of their use, as you can see, are quite numerous.

Euphemisms in the text and oral speech

In the text of the euphemisms, examples of which were given by us, are often highlighted with the help of quotes and can be accompanied by various metalanguage comments. The author can disclose the data of the name and direct them in parallel. In oral speech, euphemisms are also one of the stylistic means. They allow you to vary speech by speakers depending on various conditions, to veil and conceal your intentions if necessary, to avoid possible communicative conflicts that can arise with the direct nomination of various actions, objects and properties.

Euphemism Men's Dysfemism

The culture of Russian speech is not limited to the use of euphemisms. Besides them, there are also dysfemisms - this is an obscene or rude designation of a neutral concept originally intended to give the latter a negative connotation or used simply to enhance speech expressiveness. For example, the use instead of "die" of the word "die", and instead of "face" - "muzzle", etc.

Dysfemism and kakofemizm

This term is sometimes used as a synonym for another concept - "kakofemizm." Their use, however, should not be reduced only to uncultured and rude. In traditional cultures (for example, East Asian), dysfemisms are widely spread in the speech in order to avoid the evil eye: towards women, children or valuable subjects. Often such substitutions in use conceal the boundary existing between polite self-abasement and superstition.

We have considered such concepts as the euphemism of men's dysfemism, and also the cacophomism. The objects and phenomena they designate are used in the speech of each of us, we do this without even thinking. Now you know how such replacements are called in Russian, and you can more consciously use them.