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What are epithets and metaphors, comparison, personification?

To make the written text or speech bright, memorable and expressive, the authors use certain artistic techniques, traditionally called trails and figures of speech. These include: metaphor, epithet, personification, hyperbole, comparison, allegory, periphrasia and other turns of speech, where words or expressions are used in a figurative sense in order to give the said expression greater expressiveness.

Next, we will learn to distinguish all possible paths and ways to use them.

What are epithets and metaphors

The most common means of expressiveness in literary speech are epithets and metaphors.

The word "epithet" in Greek means "attached". That is, in the name itself there is an explanation of the essence - this definition, which characterizes an object or phenomenon. The symptom, which is expressed by the epithet, thus, as it were, is attached to the object described, it supplements it in an emotional and even semantic sense.

In linguistics and lexicology, there is still no generally accepted theory that accurately explains what epithets and metaphors are. Usually speak of three types of epithets:

  • General language - those that have stable, often used in the literary speech of communication (silver dew, cracking frost, etc.);
  • Folk-poetic - used in folklore works (red girl, sweet speech, kind fellow, etc.);
  • Individual-author's - created by the authors of literary works (case studies (AP Chekhov), scratching look (M. Gorky)).

Metaphors, unlike epithets, are not only one word, but also an expression that is used figuratively. Metaphors are chosen on the basis of similarity or, conversely, the contrast of any phenomena or objects.

How and when is metaphor used

More details on what epithets and metaphors are, and what is the difference, can be understood if one understands that the main requirement for the use of the latter is their originality, unusualness, the ability to evoke emotional associations and help to present an event or phenomenon.

Here is an example of the metaphorical description of the night sky in the novel "Three" by M. Gorky: "The Milky Way was spread out in a silvery cloth across the sky from edge to edge. It was pleasant and sad to look at it through the branches of the tree."

The use of stereotyped, their frequent originality and emotional saturation of metaphors can reduce the quality of the work or spoken speech.

No less dangerous can be the excessive, the abundance of metaphors. Speech in such cases becomes unnecessarily flowery and ornate, which can also disturb its perception.

How to distinguish metaphor and epithet

In works it can sometimes be quite difficult to discern which paths the author uses. To do this, you need to understand again in comparison what epithets and metaphors are.

The metaphor is an iconic device that is based on analogy, the transfer of meaning in similarity, similarity: "Morning laughed at the windows. Her eyes are dark agates. "

The epithet is one of the cases of metaphor, it is easier to say - the artistic definition ("Warm dairy twilight, icy cold stars").

Proceeding from what has been said, it is already possible to understand what a metaphor, epithet, personification is and find them in the example quoted: "It was evident how long needles rushed from a merry blue sky, from a high smoky cloud, drops ..." (I. Bunin, novel").

It is clear that metaphors (drops were carried by long needles), and epithets (from a smoky cloud) and personification (a gay blue sky) were used in it.

Incarnation - a special metaphor-allegory

So what is a metaphor, epithet, personification? This, as you have already understood, means of transferring the author's relationship to a phenomenon or object, such peculiar colors that make it written or pronounced bright and memorable.

And from this series one can distinguish an embodiment - a special path, which has a long history, which goes back to folk art. Incarnation is the same as allegory, the transfer of the properties of a living being to phenomena or objects.

On the use of impersonation, one of the genres closest to folklore is also built: a fable.

In contrast to such paths as metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification - this is also a very economical technique. Applying it, you do not need to describe the subject in detail, it is enough to compare it with something already familiar to cause the necessary associations: "And how pathetic are those covered with old straw, over the belly of the huts of the rural landless poor peasants!" Sokolov-Mikitov, "Childhood").

What is comparison

It is impossible to imagine a work that lacks comparisons, comparisons of something with something, the likeness of one phenomenon to another, which allows to describe them more accurately, more accurately, and at the same time convey their attitude to them.

Classics of Russian literature masterfully mastered the art of applying epithets, metaphors, comparisons: "On the blue, velvet-strewn sky with bright stars, the black foliage patterns looked like someone's hands stretched to the sky in an attempt to reach its heights" (M. Gorky, "Three" ).

Difficult cases in determining comparison

Sometimes the expressive method described above-the comparison-can be quite difficult to distinguish from the cases when the sentence simply uses words with unions "like", "as if" and "as if", but with other purposes.

Again, epithets, metaphors, comparisons are paths that help enrich, "paint" what has been said. So, in the sentence "We saw how he walked slowly towards the forest" there is no comparison, there is only an alliance that connects parts of a complex sentence. In the sentence "We went out into the corridor, where it was dark and cold, like in a cellar" (I. Bunin) the comparison is obvious (it's cold, like in a cellar).

Methods of expression comparison

And so that in the series the metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification could be finally understood with each path, we will linger a little more in comparison.

It is expressed in many ways:

  • With the help of turns with the words "how", "exactly", "like", etc. ("Her hair curled like a mustache peas");
  • A comparative degree of the adjective or adverb ("tongue sharper than a razor");
  • Instrumental case of the noun ("in the heart of the nightingale sang love");
  • And also lexically (using the words "similar to", "like", etc.).

What is hyperbole

From the use of such trails as metaphor, epithet, comparison, hyperbole is especially saturated, exaggerated essence. Many authors readily use this technique: "He had a completely impassive, some stony, rusty face."

To hyperbolic methods can be attributed and fabulous giants, and Thumbelina, and Boy-with-finger, inhabiting fairy tales. And in the epic of the hyperbole - this is an indispensable attribute: the stronghold of the heroes is always unreasonable, and the enemy is fierce and innumerable.

Even in everyday speech, you can find a hyperbole: "We have not seen each other for a thousand years!" Or "The sea of tears has been shed".

Metaphor, epithet, comparison, hyperbole are often used and in combination, giving rise to hyperbolic comparisons or personifications and metaphors ("the rain poured down a solid wall").

The ability to use trails will make your speech imaginative and vivid

In his time, VG Belinsky argued that it is not the same thing to speak well and speak correctly. After all, even irreproachable, from the point of view of grammar, speech can be difficult to perceive.

And from the above, you probably already understood what a metaphor, epithet, personification is, and that it is extremely important to be able to use these techniques. It will help you in this thoughtful reading of the works of the classics - since it is them that can be considered the standard of application of all the stylistic wealth of the Russian language.

Read the Gogol lines: "Words ... like flowers, same affectionate, bright and juicy ...", in which, with a small set of artistic means, the author was able to clearly convey his impression of the sound of words. And remember that a metaphor, a hyperbole, an epithet are the tools that will hone your speech, which means you need to learn how to use them!

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