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Classical science of modern times

– одна из важнейших эпох в истории. The classical stage of the development of science is one of the most important epochs in history. It falls on 17-19 centuries. This is the era of the greatest discoveries and inventions. . It is largely due to the achievements of scientists that it is regarded as a classical stage of science . In this era, a model of cognition was laid. . Let us consider further what was the science of the classical period .

Stages of

началось с формирования механистической картины мира. The formation of classical science began with the formation of a mechanistic picture of the world. It was based on the idea that the laws of physics and mechanics extend not only to the natural environment, but also to other spheres, including the activities of society. формировалась постепенно. Classical science was formed gradually. The first stage is in the 17-18th centuries. It is connected with Newton's discovery of the law of gravitation and the mastery of his achievements by European scientists. In the second stage - in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. - the differentiation of science began. It was conditioned by industrial revolutions.

Features

обладает следующими специфическими чертами: Classical science has the following specific features:

  1. Physics was the key area of knowledge. Scientists were of the opinion that it is on this discipline that all other directions, not only natural, but also humanitarian, are based. Newton's physics viewed the world as a mechanism, the totality of material bodies, whose motion is determined by strict natural laws. This understanding of what has happened has spread to sociological processes.
  2. The world was considered as a set of forces of repulsion and attraction. представляла как перемещение элементов вещества, лишенных качественных особенностей. All processes, social ones including classical science of modern times, represented the displacement of elements of matter lacking qualitative characteristics. Priority in the methods began to acquire calculations, accurate measurements were given special attention.
  3. нового времени формировалась на собственной основе. The classical science of modern times was formed on its own basis. She was not influenced by religious beliefs, but relied solely on her findings.
  4. на сложившуюся в эпоху Средневековья систему образования. The classical philosophy of science influenced the system of education that developed in the Middle Ages. Special polytechnic educational institutions began to be added to existing universities. At the same time, educational programs began to be formed according to a different scheme. It was based on the first place mechanics, then went to physics and chemistry, biology and sociology.

The Age of Enlightenment

It falls on the 17th-end of the 18th century. находилась под влиянием идей Ньютона. At this stage, classical science was influenced by Newton's ideas. In his work, he cited evidence that gravity, which is revealed in terrestrial conditions, is the same force that keeps the planet in orbit and other celestial bodies. Many scientists came to the idea of a universal beginning and before Newton. However, the merit of the latter is that it was he who was able to clearly articulate the fundamental importance of gravitational forces within the framework of the world picture. This pattern was the basis until the 19th century. The pattern was challenged by Einstein and Bohr. The first, in particular, proved that at the speed of light and the huge distances characteristic for the megaworld, space and time, as well as directly and mass of bodies do not obey the Newtonian laws. Bohr, carrying out research on the microworld, established that the elementary laws deduced earlier laws also do not apply. Their behavior can be predicted solely in accordance with the theory of probability.

Rationalistic worldview

. This is one of the main features of classical science . In the Age of Enlightenment in the minds of scientists, a rationalistic worldview was established, as opposed to religious (based on dogma). It was believed that the development of the universe proceeds according to the laws inherent only to it. The idea of such self-sufficiency was substantiated in Laplace's "Heavenly Mechanics." The Bible was replaced by the "Encyclopedia of Crafts, Sciences and Arts", created by Rousseau, Voltaire and Diderot.

"Knowledge is power"

In the Age of Enlightenment, science was considered the most prestigious occupation. F. Bacon became the author of the famous slogan "knowledge is power". In the minds of people, the opinion has been established that human knowledge and social progress have enormous potentialities. This mentality received the name of social and cognitive optimism. On this basis, many social utopias were formed. Almost immediately after the appearance of the work of T. More, there were books by T. Campanella, F. Bacon. In the work of the latter, "New Atlantis" was the first to outline a project on the state organization of the system. – Петти - сформулировал исходные принципы познания в сфере хозяйственной деятельности. The founder of classical economic science - Petty - formulated the initial principles of cognition in the sphere of economic activity. They proposed methods for calculating the national income. рассматривала богатство, как гибкую категорию. Classical economics considered wealth as a flexible category. In particular, Petty said that the income of the ruler depends on the number of benefits of all subjects. Accordingly, the more they are richer, the more you can collect taxes from them.

Institutionalization

It was quite active in the Enlightenment. It was at this stage that the classical organization of the scientific system began to take shape, which still exists today. In the era of the Enlightenment, there were special institutions that united professional scientists. They were called academies of sciences. In 1603, the first such institution arose. It was the Roman Academy. Galileo was one of its first members. It is worth saying that soon it was the academy that defended the scientist from the attacks of the church. In 1622 a similar institution was established in England. In 1703 the head of the Royal Academy was Newton. In 1714, Prince Menshikov, an entourage of Peter the Great, became a foreign member of it. In 1666 the Academy of Sciences in France was founded. Its members were chosen exclusively by agreement with the king. In this case, the monarch (at that time it was Louis XIV) showed personal interest in the activities of the academy. In 1714 Peter the Great was elected its foreign member. With his support in 1725, a similar institution was created in Russia. As its first members were elected Bernoulli (biologist and mathematician), and Euler (mathematician). Lomonosov was later admitted to the academy. In the same period, the level of research in universities began to rise. Special universities began to appear. For example, in 1747, the Mining School was opened in Paris. A similar institution in Russia appeared in 1773.

Specialization

As another evidence of increasing the level of organization of the scientific system, the emergence of special directions of knowledge. They were specialized research programs. As I. Latkatos believed, in this era six key directions were formed. They were studied:

  1. Energy of different kinds.
  2. Metallurgical production.
  3. Electricity.
  4. Chemical processes.
  5. Biology.
  6. Astronomy.

Basic Ideas

Despite the rather active differentiation during the fairly long existence of the classical scientific system, it still retained a certain commitment to some general methodological tendencies and forms of rationality. They, in fact, influenced the worldview status. Among such features it is possible to note the following ideas:

  1. The final expression of truth in an absolute complete form, not dependent on the circumstances of cognition. Such an interpretation was justified as a methodological requirement in the explanation and description of idealized theoretical categories (force, material point, etc.) that were intended to replace real objects and their interrelationships.
  2. Setting for unambiguous cause-effect descriptions of events, processes. It excluded the consideration of probable and accidental factors that were considered as a result of the incompleteness of knowledge, as well as subjective introductions into the content.
  3. The isolation of subjective-personal elements from the scientific context, the means and conditions for carrying out research activities peculiar to him.
  4. Interpretation of objects of knowledge as simple systems that obey the requirements of invariability and static character of their key characteristics.

Classical and non-classical science

In the late 19th - early 20th century, the ideas cited above were widely accepted. On their basis a classical form of scientific rationality was formed. It was believed that the picture of the world is built and fully justified. In the future, it will only be necessary to clarify and specify some of its components. However, the story was ordered somewhat differently. This era was marked by a number of discoveries, which did not fit in any way with the existing picture of reality. Bohr, Thompson, Becquerel, Dirac, Einstein, Broil, Planck, Heisenberg and a number of other scientists revolutionized physics. They proved the fundamental failure of the established mechanistic natural science. The efforts of these scientists laid the foundations for a new quantum-relativistic reality. So science passed to a new nonclassical stage. This era continued until the 60s of the 20th century. During this period, a whole series of revolutionary changes took place in different spheres of knowledge. In physics, quantum and relativistic theories are formed, in cosmology - the theory of the non-stationary universe. The emergence of genetics has provided radical changes in biological knowledge. The theory of systems, cybernetics made a significant contribution to the formation of the nonclassical picture. All this led to frontal mastering of ideas in industrial technologies and social practice.

The essence of the revolution

– естественные явления, возникшие в ходе становления и расширения системы. Classical and non-classical science are natural phenomena that arose in the course of the formation and expansion of the system. The transition from one era to another was necessitated by the formation of a new form of rationality. In this sense, a global-scale revolution was to be committed. Its essence was that the subject was introduced into the content of the "body" of cognition. Classical science studied reality understood as an objective. Within the framework of the existing concepts, cognition did not depend on the subject, conditions and means of his activity. In the nonclassical model, accounting and explication of the interactions between the object and the means by which it is cognized is the key requirement for obtaining a true description of reality. As a result, the paradigm of science has changed. The object of cognition is viewed not as an absolute objective reality, but as a definite slice of it, given through the prism of methods, forms, and means of investigation.

Classical, non-classical and post-non-classical science

Since the 60s of the last century, the transition to a qualitatively new stage has begun. Science began to acquire distinct post-nonclassical (modern) features. At this stage, a revolution occurred directly in the nature of cognitive activity. It was caused by radical changes in methods and means of obtaining, processing, storing, transferring and evaluating knowledge. If we consider postnonclassical science in terms of a change in the type of rationality, then it substantially expanded the scope of methodological reflection in relation to key parameters and structural components of research activity. In contrast to the earlier systems, it requires the evaluation of interactions and mediations of knowledge, not only with the specific operations and means of investigating the subject, but also with the value-objective aspects, that is, with the sociocultural background of the historical era as with the real environment. The non-classical paradigm presupposed the use of methodological regula- tives, represented in the form of relativity to the means of observation, the statistical and probabilistic nature of the additionality of various languages for the description of objects. The modern model of the system directs the researcher to evaluate the phenomena of the formation, improvement, self-organization of processes in the cognizable reality. It involves the study of objects in the historical perspective, taking into account the cooperative, synergetic effects of their interaction and coexistence. The key task of the researcher was the theoretical reconstruction of the phenomenon in the widest possible range of its mediations and connections. This provides a re-creation of a systematic and holistic image of the process in the language of science.

Specificity of the modern model

It is worth saying that it is impossible to describe all key indicators of the subject field of post-non-classical science. This is due to the fact that it extends its cognitive resources and efforts to almost all areas of reality, including socio-cultural systems, nature, and the spiritual and psychic sphere. Post-non-classical science studies the processes of cosmic evolution, questions of human interaction with the biosphere, the development of advanced technologies from nanoelectronics to neurocomputers, the ideas of global evolutionism and co-evolution, and much more. The modern model is characterized by an interdisciplinary focus and problem-oriented search. As objects of study today are unique social and natural complexes in the structure of which there is a person.

Conclusion

Such an impressive entry of science into the world of human systems creates fundamentally new conditions. They put forward a complex of complex worldview problems about the value and meaning of knowledge itself, the prospects for its existence and expansion, interaction with other forms of culture. In such a situation, the question of the real price of innovations, the probable consequences of their introduction into the system of human communication, spiritual and material production, will also be quite legitimate.

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